A Brief History of the Invention of Plastics

A Brief History of the Invention of Plastics The first man-made plastic was created by Alexander Parkes who publicly demonstrated it at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London. The material, called Parkesine, was an organic material derived from cellulose that once heated could be molded and retained its shape when cooled. Celluloid Celluloid is derived from cellulose and alcoholized camphor. John Wesley Hyatt invented celluloid as a substitute for the ivory in billiard balls in 1868. He first tried using  a natural substance called collodion  after spilling a bottle of it and discovering that the material dried into a tough and flexible film. However, the material was not strong enough to be used as a billiard ball, not until the addition of camphor, a derivative of the laurel tree. The new celluloid could now be molded with heat and pressure into a durable shape. Besides billiard balls, celluloid became famous as the first flexible photographic film used for still photography and motion pictures. Hyatt created celluloid in a strip format for movie film. By 1900, movie film was an exploding market for celluloid. Formaldehyde Resins - Bakelite After cellulose nitrate, formaldehyde was the next product to advance the technology of plastic. Around 1897, efforts to manufacture white chalkboards led to casein plastics (milk protein mixed with formaldehyde) Galalith and Erinoid are two early tradename examples. In 1899, Arthur Smith received British Patent 16,275, for phenol-formaldehyde resins for use as an ebonite substitute in electrical insulation, the first patent for processing a formaldehyde resin. However, in 1907, Leo Hendrik Baekeland improved phenol-formaldehyde reaction techniques and invented the first fully synthetic resin to become commercially successful with the trade name Bakelite. Here is a brief timeline of the evolution of plastics. Timeline - Precursors 1839 - Natural Rubber - Method of processing invented by Charles Goodyear1843 - Vulcanite - Invented by Thomas Hancock1843 - Gutta-Percha - Invented by William Montgomerie1856 - Shellac - Invented by Alfred Critchlow and Samuel Peck1856 - Bois Durci - Invented by Francois Charles Lepage Timeline - Beginning of the Plastic Era With Semi-Synthetics 1839 - Polystyrene or PS - Discovered by  Eduard Simon1862 - Parkesine - Invented by Alexander Parkes1863 - Cellulose Nitrate or Celluloid - Invented by John Wesley Hyatt1872 - Polyvinyl Chloride or PVC - First created by Eugen Baumann1894 - Viscose Rayon - Invented by Charles Frederick Cross and Edward John Bevan Timeline - Thermosetting Plastics and Thermoplastics 1908 - Cellophane  - Invented by Jacques E. Brandenberger1909 - First true plastic Phenol-Formaldehyde (trade name Bakelite) - Invented by Leo Hendrik Baekeland1926 - Vinyl or PVC - Walter Semon invented a plasticized PVC1933 - Polyvinylidene chloride or Saran also called PVDC - Accidentally discovered by Ralph Wiley, a Dow Chemical lab worker1935 - Low-density polyethylene or LDPE - Invented by Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett1936 - Acrylic or Polymethyl Methacrylate1937 - Polyurethanes (trade-named Igamid for plastics materials and Perlon for fibers) - Otto Bayer and co-workers discovered and patented the chemistry of polyurethanes1938 - Polystyrene made practical1938 - Polytetrafluoroethylene or PTFE (trade-named Teflon) - Invented by Roy Plunkett1939 - Nylon and Neoprene - Considered a replacement for silk and a synthetic rubber respectively by Wallace Hume Carothers1941 - Polyethylene Terephthalate or Pet - Invented by Whinfield and Dickson1942 - Low-Density Polyethylene1942 - Unsaturated Polyester also called PET - Patented by John Rex Whinfield and James Tennant Dickson 1951 - High-density polyethylene or HDPE (trade-named Marlex) - Invented by Paul Hogan and Robert Banks1951 - Polypropylene or PP - Invented by Paul Hogan and Robert Banks1953 - Saran Wrap introduced by Dow Chemicals1954 - Styrofoam (a type of foamed polystyrene foam) - Invented by Ray McIntire for Dow Chemicals1964 - Polyimide1970 - Thermoplastic Polyester this includes trademarked Dacron, Mylar, Melinex, Teijin, and Tetoron1978 - Linear Low-Density Polyethylene1985 - Liquid Crystal Polymers

Free Essays on Mitchell Difficulty Paper

Difficulty Paper – Mitchell After reading W.J.T. Mitchell’s essay, The Photographic Essay: Four Case Studies, I found many ideas difficult to understand. The essay revolved around how photographs can be presented with and without an accompanying text and how these two rudiments relate to each other. Throughout the text, Mitchell is trying to show that â€Å"photography is and is not a language, and that retrospectively, language is and is not photography† (Mitchell 522). The entire understanding of a photograph and its accompanying text is a difficult relationship to understand. The relationship is described as â€Å"a principal site of struggle for value and power in contemporary representations of reality† (Mitchell 522). Mitchell uses multiple quotations to try to back up his point. He also uses difficult language throughout the essay. With a combination of a difficult topic, multiple quotations, and difficult language, I found this essay difficult to read. The entire topic of photographs and its relation to text is a difficult undertaking. Mitchell assumed that we as the reader understood the components of art in photography. By not explaining this, the reader has no understanding of photography or any of the elements about it. Mitchell’s explanation of the relationship between photographs and text completely lost the reader. Another area for concern with Mitchell’s essay is that he talks about four very different essays, but does not prove a point. All he does is give a basic summary of what was stated. By not explaining the importance of the different ideas from each essay, the reader has no point in knowing about each of these independent essays. Mitchell wrote his essay based on four other essays, but did not clearly give a good enough background for the reader to form their own conclusion. Mitchell leaves much of the understanding of this topic to personal interpretation, which is impossible to do witho... Free Essays on Mitchell Difficulty Paper Free Essays on Mitchell Difficulty Paper Difficulty Paper – Mitchell After reading W.J.T. Mitchell’s essay, The Photographic Essay: Four Case Studies, I found many ideas difficult to understand. The essay revolved around how photographs can be presented with and without an accompanying text and how these two rudiments relate to each other. Throughout the text, Mitchell is trying to show that â€Å"photography is and is not a language, and that retrospectively, language is and is not photography† (Mitchell 522). The entire understanding of a photograph and its accompanying text is a difficult relationship to understand. The relationship is described as â€Å"a principal site of struggle for value and power in contemporary representations of reality† (Mitchell 522). Mitchell uses multiple quotations to try to back up his point. He also uses difficult language throughout the essay. With a combination of a difficult topic, multiple quotations, and difficult language, I found this essay difficult to read. The entire topic of photographs and its relation to text is a difficult undertaking. Mitchell assumed that we as the reader understood the components of art in photography. By not explaining this, the reader has no understanding of photography or any of the elements about it. Mitchell’s explanation of the relationship between photographs and text completely lost the reader. Another area for concern with Mitchell’s essay is that he talks about four very different essays, but does not prove a point. All he does is give a basic summary of what was stated. By not explaining the importance of the different ideas from each essay, the reader has no point in knowing about each of these independent essays. Mitchell wrote his essay based on four other essays, but did not clearly give a good enough background for the reader to form their own conclusion. Mitchell leaves much of the understanding of this topic to personal interpretation, which is impossible to do witho...

The Importance of Teaching Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Importance of Teaching - Essay Example The essay "The Importance of Teaching" analyzes the aim of the government of England to improve the education system by setting high-quality standards in the education system. The key objectives for the development of this paper assist in improving teaching and learning in various schools. To reform initial teaching programs and increasing the time of trainees and time spent in education. The teaching programs need to focus on core teaching skills and promote reading and managing of behaviors among students. To advance a national network of teaching schools with different models that lead to training and professionalism of head teachers and teachers. The system focuses on head teachers and promotes excellent teaching through committing to work and supporting other schools. The aim of the network allows various academic institutions to share professionalism and promote education among different teachers and students. To increase the total number of local leaders, that participates in the promotion of education in diverse communities and localities in England. Increasing a total number of individuals that participate in education developments improves decision-making processes and choices of education standards. The number of national teachers promotes enrollment of stud ents as the importance of teaching and education advances in various institutions. To reduce sharply the Bureau tic burden of different schools, duties, guidance and requirements, processes and cutting away unnecessary obligations.

Conferance Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Conferance Paper - Essay Example As a result of this governments in various parts of the world have come up with creative ways of reversing this predicament. 1. Introduction Zero carbon urban design is a revolutionary move that has been favoured by many governments in the past few years with the aim of curbing the damage caused by adverse climate changes. From a documentary by Al Gore (2006), the major causes of greenhouse effect are the by-products of industrialization, and especially carbon dioxide. The level of Carbon dioxide, the main constituent of emission by vehicles, is linked to consumption of fuel by the vehicle. Due to this there is need to regulate the amount of greenhouse gases that are emitted into the atmosphere and this is effective by fuel economy. The construction of better energy efficient buildings has also been established as a way of reducing the reliance on other forms of energy which pollute the environment and has promoted environment-friendly building. Braathens (2010) seeks to show how the transport activity levels in maritime, road, rail and aviation have impacted on globalization and vice versa. This paper will focus on the various methods that can be applied to ensure zero carbon emissions as a way of improving the quality of life in the urban centres. In particular, fuel economy will be evaluated in detail to determine its application in promoting the success of zero carbon emissions from vehicular automotives. 2. Zero-Carbon Urban Centres Greenhouse gases are those that contribute to the greenhouse effect by absorbing infrared radiation, and they include carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbon, hydro fluorocarbon and sulphur hexafluoride among others. In both industrial and developing countries alike, cities use fossil fuels such as coal, gas and oil to produce energy and they emit greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. A zero-carbon city is a term used to refer to an urban centre that has zero emissions of carbon and other greenhouse gases and one that is unlikely to cause any harmful effect on the planet. Such a city would run completely in renewable energy as the sole energy source and it maintains an optimal standard of living while reducing the impact on the environment. The process of making an already established modern urban centre into a zero carbon city would involve reducing the amount of emission of greenhouse gases to zero and increasing the use of renewable energy above other sources. This would further be coupled by the use of renewable electricity and transport modes that have zero emission of carbon dioxide. Initiatives in Eco-Cities 1. Energy The use of fossil sources energy such as coal is one of the core reasons the planet is experiencing global warming due to the emission of greenhouse gases. An ideal eco-city would be self-sufficient in energy production and use. The use of natural and environment friendly sources of energy in a city would reduce the levels of carbon released into the atmosphere. The use of skylights and cl ear walls of glass would ensure sufficient lighting during the day and reduce the dependency on electrical power for lighting. Most of the energy utilized by an eco-city would most likely be solar energy, generated using photovoltaic panels, solar collectors and thermal tubes (McKenna 2008). A design in which streets are narrow would ensure maximum shaded areas in the city which would be coupled with wind cooling towers which would aid in

Internet and UK Tourism Industry Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 8000 words

Internet and UK Tourism Industry - Coursework Example It has been used for various transactions from information transfer to interpersonal communications. Businesses have greatly improved with the onset of internet usage. The utilization of internet has come to the point of it becoming a necessity rather a luxury. The popularity of the internet usage has made it a subject of various studies not only in the academe but including industries that nowadays depend on it. The properties, advantages as well as the disadvantages have been the focus of these studies. The introduction of internet as one of the modes of communication has made significant changes in the lifestyle on the people. It began in the 1980s as the Computer Revolution and now it became the Computer and Internet Revolution. During the computer revolution, the computer usage has increased rapidly and between 1985 and 1999, the usage of computers at work or at home increased from 30 percent to 70 percent as the increase in computer ownership rose from 15 percent to 60 percent (Kim, 2001). Consequently, these factors have made businesses change their strategies. They introduced e-commerce in which consumers can exchange goods and avail themselves of the services offered by companies thru the internet. E-commerce follows the same basic principles as traditional commerce that, buyers and sellers come together to exchange goods for money. But unlike traditional commerce in which the consumers go to a particular place to avail necessary products, they can visit the web sites of multiple vendors anytime, any day to compare prices and make purchases online. But this does not only benefit the consumers, the sellers as well can cut costs and expand their market. Because they sell over the internet, which can be accessed globally, they have the potential to market their products or services worldwide and are not limited by the physical location of a store. At the same time, internet technologies also permit sellers to track the interests and preferences of their customers with the customer's permission and then use this information to build an ongoing relationship with the customer by customizing products and services to meet the customer's needs. Nielsen (2005) wrote that there is an upward trend in global online shopping. Popular items purchased on the internet are books at 34%, videos and games at 22%, airline tickets and reservations at 21% and clothing and accessories at 20%. The study also showed that even one percent of the total population purchase using the net does not necessarily mean successful online sales but it is still important for retailers big and small to understand the factors that drive brand equity and site usage. It also shows that sites and brands with higher brand equity attract higher visitation and sales. But e-commerce has also its downside; some costumers are reluctant to buy products which need actual assessment such as furniture and appliances. Some also consider shopping a social experience; they may be going to a store with family or friends. Security and assurance of transactions are also some factors why some consumers are apprehensive to use the internet for purchases (Microsoft Encarta 200 7). According to a survey by HM Revenue and Customs, web users especially in the UK are using the internet to make their lives easier. The surveys shows that the top three uses of internet are researching

Cultural Elements in Translation Essay Example for Free

Cultural Elements in Translation Essay Different languages result in different world views. Different languages direct their speaker to a certain way of thinking and paying attention to certain aspects of the world around them. So translation is not only finding the best equivalent but also finding appropriate ways of saying things in another language. The main problem for a translator is to maintain the local color of source text (foreignization) or to adjust the text according to the culture of the target audience (domestication). One of the main goals of literary translation is show the sensibilities of the source-language culture to the target-language audience. Transmitting cultural elements is not an easy task. The translator should not only be a bilingual but also a bicultural. S/he should be familiar with the author’s intentions and readers’ expectations. S/he should study the history, social structure, religion, traditional customs and norms of both source and target texts which s/he is going to translate. Some of the problems which an Indian translator (or maybe any translator) faces during translating culture-specific items are as follows: * Translating proper names * Translating grammatical forms which show respect and euphemism * Translating social relationships * Translating life-style and values * Translating symbols * Translating habits * Translating national or religious ceremonies * Translating customs and traditions * Translating religious acts, myths and legends * Translating geographical and environmental phenomena So the translator should not stick to word-by-word translation but s/he should substitute certain elements in the work. S/he should attempt to transmit cultural quality from one language to another.

Essay on Dramatic Effects in Shakespeares The Tempest -- Tempest essa

The Importance of Dramatic Effects in The Tempest      Ã‚   It has been said that the function of drama is to confront and then engage the audience.   This is certainly the approach taken by Shakespeare in his play, The Tempest.   When the play begins, the audience is immediately confronted by the sheer ferocity of the tempest, and from the time that the unfortunate passengers land on the island, the audience is engaged by the fantasy of the island of Prospero.    At the start of the play, we see the action on board the ship which is ferrying the King and some members of the upper class back home. They are in the midst of a great storm, the likes of which mariners of those times would have prayed not to meet. The state of nature, at this point, is very much in disorder. This becomes important after the action inn the ensuing calm, as many different binary opposites are set up, such as fate against free will, human versus non human, and order conflicting with disorder. Prospero, the ruler of the island, is actually both parts of the opposition 'power of kings' versus supernatural power, being both the rightful Duke of Milan and the leader of his island, and also being a magician with a spirit as a servant. Through his 'art', he also shows us again the order/disorder opposition. He created the storm at the start of the play, the great disorder. Towards the end, however, he is responsible for the masque scene, a great order - the culminating of p erfection for that culture, in fact.    In Elizabethan times, dramatists used the thrust stage as the standard for all of the plays performed. The thrust stage, as distinct to the later used Proscenium arch, was a large raised platform that reached out into the audience. In fact,... ...on. It is important to note that you do not get the full effect of a play just from reading it, but in The Tempest, these effects work as well as in another masterpiece from Shakespeare.    Works Cited and Consulted: Garnett, Richard. "Irving Shakespeare" The Tempest (and selected criticism). Charlotte Porter and Helen A. Clarke (eds.) Thomas Y. Crowell & Co. 1903. Knight, G. Wilson. "Shakespearian Superman" The Tempest D.J. Palmer (ed.) Macmillan & Co. 1968 Murray, J. Middleton. "Shakespeare's Dream" The Tempest D.J. Palmer (ed.) Macmillan & Co. 1968 Palmer, D.J. Shakespeare's Later Comedies: An Anthology of Modern Criticism. Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1971. Shakespeare, William. The Tempest. 1611. Ed. Stephen Orgel. New York: Oxford UP, 1994. Tillyard, E.M. "The Tragic Pattern" The Tempest D.J. Palmer (ed.) Macmillan & Co. 1968